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The Concept of “Virtu” in Machiavelli’s Political Theory: Princely Virtu and Civic Virtu from “The Prince” and “Discourses”
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This is a 5 page paper discussing Machiavelli’s Princely and civic “virtu”. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) was an Italian politician and philosopher during the Italian Renaissance but was also tortured by the Medici and understood the various levels of politics within the society of the day. Despite his hardships within the political system, Machiavelli’s writings were often considered ahead of their time in the protection of Italy as a country. His political theories were best bestowed in two of his better known works “The Prince” and “Discourses”. “The Prince” discussed what was needed in order for a Prince to maintain his Principality in what is now known as Machiavellian concepts of “whatever means necessary”. Princely “virtu” was not to be confused with”virtue”. “Virtu” for Machiavelli was a certain strength and wisdom which was required by a Prince to use violent means when necessary in preserving his country. In “Discourses”, commissioned by the Medici which was to offer advice in regards to a new constitution, Machiavelli also introduced the term “virtu” as it can be applied to a republic. Republican civic “virtu” was a strength required by the people to provide well formed and founded debates in order to make the proper determination as to who would be their leader and the structure of their political system. Machiavelli uses the existence of both Princely virtu and civic virtu to explain the success of the Roman invasions and the maintenance of their republics. A Prince with virtu needed people with virtu in his armies to be able to conquer and control others and to maintain an element of fear to not expect retaliation. Civic virtu could further be applied to continue an endless succession of Princes of virtu and the establishment of civic virtu is also essential for the maintenance of the strength of the Republic. Bibliography lists 3 sources.
Filename: TJVirtu1.rtf

The Concept of Certainty: Locke and Hume
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This is a 5 page paper discussing Locke’s and Hume’s concepts of certainty. In John Locke’s “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” (1690) and David Hume’s “An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding” (1748) both philosophers examine the theory of knowledge and the aspects of ideas, relationships, and certainty. Locke used the different types of knowledge (intuitive, demonstrative, and sensory) to discuss the level of certainty of ideas based on their degree of probability and margin of error. All ideas could then be ranked hierarchically in regards to their degree of certainty. Intuitive and demonstrative knowledge had a different degree of evidence and certainty than did sensory knowledge. Hume, on the other hand, did not believe that anything outside of the sensory field, such as metaphysical discussions, could be considered certain. For Hume impressions were the most vivid elements of knowledge and ideas were less vivid but based on impressions. Ideas could be considered certain only if they were factual and had spatial or temporal relationships or mathematical universality and all other ideas had no certainty as they included doubt. Bibliography lists 5 sources.
Filename: TJcertn1.rtf

THE CONCEPT OF EUTHANASIA
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This paper examines the concept of euthanasia, and discusses what both sides of the issue are, and how both groups feel about the idea of being "helped" to death. Bibliography lists 3 sources.
Filename: MTeuthan.rtf

The Concept of Evil
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A 6 page examination of evil as it relates to an all-powerful God. This paper explains evil using Richard Swineburg’s writings and extensively references the Bible itself. Bibliography lists 5 sources.
Filename: PPrlgEvilGodAllPowerful.rtf

THE CONCEPT OF FREEDOM: GIDE, CAMUS AND SARTRE
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This 10 page paper discusses the concept of freedom as exmplified by Gide, Camus and Sartre, using the works, Les Caves du Vatican, The Stranger, and Nausea. Quotes, examples, philosophy offered. Bibliography lists 6 sources.
Filename: MBlitfree.rtf

The Concept of Good According to Aristotle and Plato
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This 5 page paper evaluates these theorists' works and looks at the concept of good. The concept of happiness is also discussed at length. Bibliography lists 2 sources.
Filename: SA242gd.rtf

The Concept of Happiness: A Comparison of the Views of John Stewart Mill and Aristotle
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A 6 page discussion of the concept of happiness as viewed by John Stewart Mill and Aristotle. Contrasts Mill’s utilitarian theory of happiness, an approach in which the end product is all that is important, with Aristotle’s view that true happiness is attained through a carefully constructed series of acts and that the acts themselves are just as important as the final outcome. Concludes that Aristotle’s approach to happiness is the most feasible of the two even though, as logic tells us and Aristotle fully acknowledged, this approach inherently means that some people will never achieve true happiness. Bibliography lists 5 sources.
Filename: PPhappy.wps

The Concept of Hierarchy in the World View of Thomas Aquinas
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A five page paper which considers the way in which Thomas Aquinas’ hierarchical cosmology was reflected in the social order and academic disciplines of the medieval era, and the consequent inter-relationship of religious and secular law and methodologies. Bibliography lists 4 sources
Filename: JLaquin.wps

The Concept of Ideas
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This 5 page report discusses English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) and how he carefully reviews the characteristics of the human mind and the course by which it is aware of the world outside and around it. Arguing against the long-established proposition of intrinsic ideas, Locke believed that the mind is born blank, a tabula rasa upon which the world describes itself through the experience of the five senses. Knowledge arising from sensation is perfected by reflection, thus enabling humans to arrive at such ideas as space, time, and infinity. Bibliography lists 3 sources.
Filename: BWideas.rtf

The Concept of Joy
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This 5 page paper explores the emotion of joy as evaluated by Nel Noddings. Her book which contains a chapter on joy is discussed philosophically. No additional sources cited.
Filename: SA218joy.rtf